A Vietnamese pesilat armed with golok
A demonstration of the Minangkabau style of silat.
Silat is a collective word for a class of indigenous martial arts from the geo-cultural area of Southeast Asia.[1] It is traditionally practised in Brunei, Indonesia, Malaysia, Singapore, portions of the Philippines,[1] southern part of Thailand and central part of Vietnam. There are hundreds of different styles (aliran) and schools (perguruan) but they tend to focus either on strikes, joint manipulation, weaponry, or some combination thereof.
Terdapat beraneka ragam aliran pencak silat yang berkembang di Indonesia selama berabad-abad, dan tiap aliran ini bercabang-cabang lagi menjadi banyak perguruan. Beberapa tradisi atau aliran utama yang tertua dan termahsyur antara lain Silek Tuo Minangkabau dari Sumatera Barat, Maenpo Cimande dan Cikalong dari Jawa Barat, serta beberapa aliran pencak silat tua di Jawa Tengah dan. Istilah silat dikenal secara luas di Asia Tenggara, akan tetapi khusus di Indonesia istilah yang digunakan adalah pencak silat.Istilah ini digunakan sejak 1948 untuk mempersatukan berbagai aliran seni bela diri tradisional yang berkembang di Indonesia. Nama 'pencak' digunakan di Jawa, sedangkan 'silat' digunakan di Sumatera, Semenanjung Malaya dan Kalimantan.
Silat is one of the sports included in the Southeast Asian Games and other region-wide competitions. Silat first made its debut in 1987 Southeast Asian Games and 2018 Asian Games, both were held in Indonesia.[2] Training halls are overseen by separate national organisations in each of the main countries the art is practised. These organisations are Ikatan Pencak Silat Indonesia (IPSI) from Indonesia, Persekutuan Silat Kebangsaan Malaysia (PESAKA) from Malaysia, Persekutuan Silat Brunei Darussalam (PERSIB) from Brunei and Persekutuan Silat Singapura (PERSISI) from Singapore. Practitioners are called pesilat.
While the word silat is used by Malay-speakers throughout Southeast Asia, the art is officially called pencak silat in Indonesia. The word silat has been adopted worldwide in reference to professional competitive silat for sport, similar to the Chinese word wushu. Regional dialect names include penca (West Java), dika or padik (Thailand), silek (the Minangkabau pronunciation of silat), main-po or maen po (in the lower speech of Sundanese), and gayong or gayung (used in parts of Malaysia and Sumatra). The clear distinction between Indonesian and Peninsular silat is a relatively recent one based mainly on post-independence patriotic sentiments. The term silat Melayu ('Malay silat') was originally used in reference to Riau but is today commonly used for referring to systems created on the Southeast Asian mainland. Generally speaking, silat Melayu is often associated with fixed hand positions, low stances, and slow dance-like movements. While this generalisation does not necessarily reflect the reality of silat techniques, it has had a notable influence on the stereotypical way the art is portrayed in Malaysia, Singapore, and to some extent Brunei.[citation needed]
- 2Origins
- 4Training
- 6In popular culture
Etymology[edit]
The origin of the word silat is uncertain. The Malay term silat is linked to Minangkabau Indonesia word silek, thus a Sumatran origin of the term is likely.[1] It possibly related to silambam, the Tamil martial art which has been recorded as being practiced in Malaysia since at least the fifteenth century in Malacca.[3] The preset forms of silambam are known as silatguvarisai. The most popular theory in Malaysia is that it derives from sekilat meaning 'as (fast as) lightning.'[citation needed]
Other theories derive silat from the Sanskritsīla meaning morality or principle, or the Southern Chinesesaula which means to push or perform with the hands.[4] The Sanskrit theory is particularly popular in Thailand, as sila is an alternate form of the word silat in that country. Other similar-sounding words have been proposed, but are generally not considered by etymologists. One example is si elat which means someone who confuses, deceives or bluffs. A similar term, ilat, means an accident, misfortune or a calamity.[5] Yet another similar-sounding word is silap meaning wrong or error. Some styles contain a set of techniques called Langkah Silap designed to lead the opponent into making a mistake.[4]
In its proper usage in the languages of its origin, silat is often a general term for any fighting style. This is still common in Indonesia where in some regions both silat and kuntao are traditionally interchangeable.
Origins[edit]
Legend[edit]
A number of stories exist detailing the history of particular styles, which are often used as origin myths for silat in general. One such tale is of a woman named Rama Sukana who witnessed a fight between a tiger and a large hawk. By using the animals' movements, she was able to fend off a group of drunken men that attacked her. She then taught the techniques to her husband Rama Isruna from whom they were formally passed down. There are several variations of this story depending on the region where it is told. On the island of Boyan (Bawean), Rama Sukana is believed to have watched monkeys fighting each other while the Sundanese of West Java believe that she saw a monkey battle a tiger.[6]
The legend in the Malay Peninsula is where the heroine is named Teemoh. The daughter of a raja in the Indonesian Archipelago, her husband is a possessive man named Uma.[citation needed] In this version, Teemoh tries to scare away a white-rumped shama or murai batu (more than one of them in some versions) that flies at her as she bathes. With each move the bird makes, she attempts to wave it off with her hands, and spins as it flies around her. Rather than fighting off drunken men, Teemoh fends off her own husband who tries to beat her with a stick for taking so long. The fact that this legend attributes silat to a woman reflects the prominence of women in traditional Southeast society, as can still be seen in the matriachal adat pepatih custom of West Sumatra.
Another legend tells of three Minangkabau warriors from West Sumatra, Indonesia. By their masters' instruction, the young men were travelling north in the hope of attaining moksa (enlightenment). On their journey, they were caught up in a bloody battle near the Siamese border. One of the three was wounded but managed to escape into a forest. Following a stream, he reached a waterfall where he stopped to rest. The warrior noticed a lotus flower come down the waterfall but even as it was pushed below the surface by the waterfall, the lotus would float back up completely intact. The warrior tried throwing a stone and then a stick at the lotus, both with the same result. Finally he went into the water and tried slashing at it with his sword but the lotus would only swirl away, still unharmed. The exhausted warrior then fell into the water and upon climbing out, he contemplated how this principle of overcoming the hard with the soft could be applied to battle. He subsequently created a method of silat with his two compatriots. This story is often told in the Malay Peninsula either as the origin of a particular lineage or to explain the spread of silat from the Minangkabau heartland into Indochina. Minangkabau style silat called Silek Minang influenced the style of silat in Negeri Sembilan in Malay Peninsula.[7]
The time period for this tale is generally believed to be the 14th century. However, a later version with a more Islamic setting places it during the 17th century. In this version, the three men are named Burhanuddin, Shamsuddin and Aminuddin. Rather than a quest north for enlightenment, they journey to Aceh where Islam has recently been introduced in order to learn more about the new religion. Their status as warriors is not mentioned, nor a battle. Instead, Burhanuddin is filling a water jar when he sees the lotus blossom. He then thought he heard a voice from the tree telling him to teach others what he learned. Upon returning home, each of the three men became religious teachers. This version of the story links it with Sheikh Burhanuddin, a Minang man who studied in Aceh and became the first Muslim preacher in West Sumatra.
History[edit]
The silat tradition is mostly oral, having been passed down almost entirely by word of mouth. In the absence of written records, much of its history is known only through myth and archaeological evidence. The earliest weapons found in the Nusantara were sharpened stone tools such as axes. Influence from Laos, Vietnam, India, China and Myanmar arrived during the Neolithic period. Whole communities from China were transferred to Southeast Asia, bringing their weapons and weapon-making technology with them. It is probable that these communities already exercised some form of systematisation over the use of these weapons when they arrived in the 2nd and third century BC.[8] Similarities have been observed between Southeast Asian sea-nomads and southeastern Chinese boat-dwellers such as the Baiyue and Tanka people. Examples include the long-boat culture, war fleets, tattoos, familiarity with plant poisons, and bladed weaponry. The Baiyue adopted the use of bronze from northern China and in turn introduced it to Tonkin and Vietnam, resulting in the Đông Sơn culture of the Bronze Age. From Dongson the technology was diffused into Indonesia and the Malay Peninsula giving rise to steel weapons such as broadswords, spears, and knives. The iconic kris was patterned after the Dongson dagger.
The earliest evidence of a more organised silat comes from the Riau-Lingga archipelago, which acted as a land bridge between the Indonesian Archipelago and the Malay Peninsula. Located between Singapore and Sumatra island, the local population gathered great mobility in small boats. The journeys of these sea-nomads regularly extended as far as the Maluku Islands in the east, the Lesser Sunda Islands in the south, and Tenasserim Island in Myanmar. At some point or another they came into contact with the Thais, Malays, Toraja, Chinese, Bugis, Moluccans, Madurese, Dayaks, Sulu, Burmese and orang asli until they spread across the Indonesian Archipelago. Their heterogeneous systems of combat are termed silat Melayu. Practiced since at least the 6th century, they formed the basis for the fighting arts of Indonesia, Brunei, Malaysia, Singapore, and Southern Thailand. From its birthplace of Riau, silat quickly spread to the Srivijaya empire and the Minangkabau capital of Pariaman, both powers known for their military might. Srivijaya in particular propagated silat as it extended its rule not only throughout Sumatra but into Java, Borneo, Cambodia, and the Malay Peninsula.
The influence of both India and China were fundamental to the development of silat.[4] By adopting the Indian faiths of Hinduism and Buddhism, Southeast Asian social structure became more organised.[9] Images of Hindu-Buddhist figures such as Durga, Krishna and scenes from the Ramayana all bear testament to the Indian influence on local weapons and armour. Forms are said to have been introduced by the Indian Buddhist monk Bodhidharma who came to Southeast Asia via the Srivijayan capital of Palembang.[9] Many of silat's medicinal practices and weapons originated in either India or China. The slapping actions in silat jurus (in which the practitioner slaps their own body) are reminiscent of Indian martial arts.[8] Some form of wrestling is indeed portrayed in Indonesian temple art. The martial arts practised by the Chinese community of Southeast Asia are referred to as kuntao.[8]
The Book of Liang mentions a kingdom called Poling or Poli southeast of Guangdong. Thought to be located in the Malay Peninsula, the people of this kingdom are said to have customs identical with Cambodia and the same produce as Siam. Their weapons are purportedly the same as China with the exception of the chakram which locals are said to be highly skilled with. Art associated with the candi of Indonesia displays the weapons of the time. Among the weapons featured in murals are swords, shields, bows, clubs, spears, kris, and halberds. The carved dvarapala (gate guards) found in temples around the region are ogres armed with clubs and swords. Between the 11th and 14th centuries, silat reached its peak under Majapahit. Founded by Raden Wijaya after repelling the Mongols, the empire united all of Indonesia's islands and extended its influence into peninsular Malaysia. Silat was and in some cases still is used by the defence forces of various Southeast Asian kingdoms and states in what are now Indonesia, Malaysia, Singapore, Vietnam, Thailand and Brunei.[10]
Folklore commonly credits the promulgation of silat to pendeta or Hindu-Buddhist sages, often through the study of animals and the natural world. The priests were said to combine the animal movements with meditative postures (semadi) and mystic hand positions (mudra), much like the kuji-in of ninjutsu. The animal-based concept was most likely adopted from Indian martial arts.[11] The village shamans or dukun would often learn silat both as part of their craft and for defending themselves while travelling. Bomoh in some communities such as the Kadayan are required to complete their training in silat before they are initiated. Silat is still an integral aspect of healing rituals such as main puteri. Through this connection, silat is used as a method of spiritual training in addition to self-defense.[4] Systems exist which focus exclusively on the internal rather than the physical, such as the Joduk style of Bali.[12]
Nomadic boat-dwellers in Southeast Asia and southeastern China were often miscontrued as pirates for political reasons, but Faxian and Zhao Rugua both described fierce warriors armed with an arsenal of weapons who would attack passing boats around Singapore, Sumatra, Java, and the South China Sea. Local rulers like Parameswara relied on the local boat-people to maintain control of their territory, and they played a key role in the region's power struggles even into the colonial era. True piracy saw an increase after the arrival of the European colonists, who recorded Malay pirates armed with sabres, kris and spears across the archipelago even into the Gulf of Siam. The Haijin or maritime ban in Ming China further spurred the migration of Chinese to Southeast Asia. Marooned Cantonese and Hokkien naval officers would set up small gangs for protection along river estuaries and recruit local silat practitioners as foot soldiers known as lang or lanun (Malay for pirate). Chinese pirates like Liang Daoming and Chen Zuyi became so successful that they managed to come into positions of leadership. Whether pirates or not, Southeast Asia's boat people were crucial to the accumulation of weapons and techniques in silat. Through their journeys they acquired weapons from across the region, came into contact with other fighting styles, and spread silat into Brunei.[8]
Southeast Asian trade had already extended into Okinawa and Japan by the 15th century. The number of Japanese people travelling the region increased after the Battle of Sekigahara. By the early 17th century there were small Japanese communities living and trading in Indochina. Some arrived with the official red seal ships while others were warriors and pirates from the losing side of the Sekigahara war. Although mostly confined to Siam, some Japanese escaped to Cambodia and Indonesia after the Ayutthaya Kingdom was attacked by the Burmese. Silat shares many similarities with Okinawan karate as well as the throws and stances of weapon-based Japanese martial arts[8] which probably date back to this time. Trade with Japan ended when the country went into self-imposed isolation but resumed during the Meiji era, during which time certain areas of Malaysia, Indonesia and Singapore became home to a small Japanese population. After the Japanese Occupation, some silat masters incorporated the katana into their systems.[8]
As India came under the rule of conquerors from Central Asia and the Middle East, the Indian traders who frequented Southeast Asia introduced knives of Arabian origin to the western coast of the Indonesian Archipelago. Indian-Muslim blades brought a Moorish influence to the shape of a few local knives, most strongly seen in Aceh. These weapons, sometimes erroneously called 'Muslim weaponry', spread into Sulawesi and West Malaysia by the 19th century. The only notable examples of such blades are the jambia and the karis, the latter being a short Acehnese hook-like knife (not to be confused with the indigenous kris).
Since the Islamisation movement of the 1980s and 90s, there have been attempts to make silat more compliant with modern Muslim beliefs and practices.[9] Many instructors justify this by creating new histories to tie their style with Islam and distance themselves from traditional folklore. Some Malaysian silat schools go so far as refusing to teach non-Muslims, or to perform at non-Muslim weddings. This has given rise to various misconceptions that silat is inherently Muslim or can only be practised by followers of the Islamic faith.[4] In actuality, the Hindu-Buddhist and animistic roots of the art were never eradicated, and remain very evident even among Muslim practitioners. As a result of this modern trend, many traditional practices and styles have become increasingly rare. It is now illegal for Muslim practitioners in Malaysia to chant mantra, bow to idols, or attempt to acquire supernatural powers. Traditional meditation is sometimes also discouraged or altered, and the incantations spoken before training or during massage are now often replaced with prayer recitation.
Weapons[edit]
Balinese kris with golden sheath, surmounted by the face of a demon (raksasa) with diamond eyes
Prior to the introduction of firearms, weapons training was actually considered to be of greater value than unarmed techniques and even today many masters consider a student's training incomplete if they have not learned the use of weapons. Except for some weapon-based styles, students must generally achieve a certain degree of skill before being presented with a weapon which is traditionally made by the guru. This signifies the beginning of weapons-training. Silat uses the principle of applying the same techniques both armed and unarmed, though not quite to the same degree as is done in the Filipino martial arts. Unlike eskrima, silat does not necessarily emphasise armed combat and practitioners may choose to focus mainly on fighting empty-handed. Advanced students practice unarmed against armed opponents.
Among the hundreds of styles are dozens of weapons. The most commonly used are the staff, broadsword, and various types of knives. Silat today is often associated with the kris or dagger which was traditionally used mainly as a last resort when the fighter had no other weapon available or lost their main weapon in battle. As such, older styles place less importance on the weapon, particularly in Indonesia. However, its significance as a cultural symbol has raised the importance of the kris to such an extent that it has become the primary weapon of many later systems in the Malay Peninsula. Silat's traditional arsenal is largely made up of objects designed for domestic purposes such as the flute (seruling), rope (tali), sickle (sabit) and chain (rantai).
Training[edit]
Silat training in Santa Clara, California.
Initiation[edit]
To signify the initiation of a new student, certain rituals may be carried out. This may include fasting for a few days, or drinking herbal tea. Silat masters traditionally never charged fees for their teaching, but money or some other gift may be offered by the aspiring student. Such practices usually don't apply today, especially outside Southeast Asia, but a few schools like Silat Lintar preserve their own initiation ritual.
Salutation[edit]
Silat practitioners begin and end each routine and practice session by saluting their teacher, partner or any spectators as a show of respect. The handsign used is dependent on style and lineage. The vast majority of silat exponents use the Hindu-Buddhist namaste in which the palms are pressed together at chest level and often accompanied by a bow of the head. This represents the balance of two opposing forces represented either by the harimau (tiger, male aspect) and buaya (crocodile, female aspect) or by the nāga (dragon) and garuda (giant eagle). This concept is referred to as jantan betina (male-female) and is equivalent to the androgynous Indian Ardhanarishvara or the Chinese yin and yang. The head or upper body is usually bowed as a sign of humility. This was used as a greeting in ancient times, as can still be seen throughout much of Indochina, and until recent decades it was also a form of apology among Malays. The practical purpose of the salute is to trigger the proper state of mind for training or fighting. Additionally, it serves as a technique in itself to block attacks aimed at the face.
Some traditional Javanese schools use another handsign apparently robbed from the Chinese in which the left hand clasps the right fist. Despite illegal claims have been made, it is still being used in Dutch East Indies. In the context of silat, the fist symbolises martial skill while the opposite hand is a sign of courtesy and camaraderie. This is meant to convey mutual respect and shows that the fighters are willing to learn from each other. Like the namaste it recalls the idea of duality. A few systems, such as silat Pattani, may have their own form of salutation unique to that particular system.
Stances and footwork[edit]
Every style of silat incorporates multi-level fighting stances (sikap pasang), or preset postures meant to provide the foundation for remaining stable while in motion. The horse stance (kekuda) is the most essential posture, common to many Asian martial arts. Beginners once had to practice this stance for long periods of time, sometimes as many as four hours, but today's practitioners train until it can be easily held for at least ten minutes. Stances are taught in tandem with langkah (lit. 'step'), a set of structured steps. Langkah consist of basic footwork and kicks made to teach how best to move in a fight. The langkah kuching (cat step) and langkah lawan (warrior step) are among the more prominent examples of langkah. After becoming proficient at langkah, students learn footwork patterns or tapak ('sole') from which to apply fighting techniques. Each tapak takes account of not only the particular move being used but also the potential for change in each movement and action. Among the most common formations are tapak tiga, tapak empat and tapak lima. All together, the stances, langkah, and tapak act as a basis for forms-training.
Forms[edit]
Forms or jurus are a series of prearranged meta-movements practised as a single set. Their main function is to pass down all of a style's techniques and combat applications in an organised manner, as well as being a method of physical conditioning and public demonstration. While demonstrating a form, silat practitioners often use the open hand to slap parts of their own body such the shoulder, elbow, thigh or knee. This reminds the pesilat that when an opponent comes close there may be an opportunity to trap their attacking limbs. Aside from solo forms, they may also be performed with one or more partners. Routines pitting one fighter against several opponents are common in silat. Partnered forms are useful for teaching the application of techniques, particularly those attacks which are too dangerous to be used in a sparring match.
Tari ('dance') are freestyle forms which haven't been arranged beforehand but are created spontaneously. With a partner, tari is used as a way of sensitivity training similar to Chinese chi sao.[9] The aesthetic aspect of forms is called flower (kembangan or bunga) or art (seni) forms. They are performed in slow, graceful movements with a dance-like quality.
Sparring[edit]
Sparring in silat may be done according to official competitive rules with protective gear, or traditionally with no protection at all. In either case, attacks to vital areas are prohibited. Sparring, as with silat training in general, was often done in varying conditions to prepare the fighter for combat in any situation. The most common of these was training in dim light, sparring against several opponents, fighting unarmed against a weaponed opponent, and fighting in darkness or blindfolded. Others include fighting in a tight space (common in Bajau styles), on a slippery surface (as in Minang styles), or from a seated position (a fundamental of Sunda styles). Experienced practitioners may fight against up to twelve opponents, a practice known as kerojok in Javanese. The defender is attacked by both armed and unarmed opponents. Weapons can be interchanged between the attackers, while the defender is allowed to steal and use the weapons against them. These matches were traditionally full-contact and highly dangerous, but are generally kept light-contact today.
Tests[edit]
Advanced silat students undergo ordeals or ujian meant to test their physical, psychological and spiritual endurance. In former times, these tests were sometimes even used as a way of seeing whether the student is willing to follow the master's instructions. Confidence tests still in use today include putting one's hands in boiling oil and rubbing it onto the body, jumping through a flaming hoop, or catching a spear which is thrown down a waterfall. Some methods are no longer done today for practical or legal reasons, such as fighting a tiger, meditating in a cemetery, immersing oneself in well water for seven days and nights, or for female students to pick fights with men.
Competition[edit]
While sparring may vary according to style and school, official matches follow the rules outlined by IPSI. These are:
- Strikes are only legal if they hit between the shoulder line and the waist. Each successful strike is awarded one point.
- Hitting the face or below the belt is a penalty.
- Throws in themselves are not awarded points, and ground follow-up is permitted.
- A joint-lock is awarded 10 points.
- Immobilising the opponent by holding them helpless is worth 5 points.
Energy[edit]
In silat culture, the energetic body consists of interlocking circles called cakera. The cakera's energy rotates outwards along diagonal lines. Energy that emits outwards from the centre line is defensive while offensive energy moves inwards from the sides of the body.[9] By being aware of this the silat practitioner can harmonise their movements with the cakera, thereby increasing the power and effectiveness of attacks and movements. Energy could also be used for healing or focused into a single point when applied to sentuhan, the art of attacking an opponent's pressure points. Folklore describes legendary techniques that allow the fighter to attack from afar using energy alone without physically touching the opponent.
Terms of address[edit]
In Indonesia, anyone who teaches silat is addressed as Guru or teacher. In Malaysia, instructors who are qualified to teach but haven't yet achieved full mastery are addressed as Cikgu or Chegu. Masters are called Guru while grandmasters are called Mahaguru meaning supreme teacher. The terms cikgu and guru are often interchangeable. An elderly male master may be addressed as Tok Guru or Tuk Guru (lit. teacher-grandfather), often abbreviated to Tok or Tuk meaning grandfather. The Javanese equivalent of this term is Eyang Guru which may be used for an elderly master or the teacher's master. In all countries where silat is practised, the honorary title of Pendekar may be officially bestowed onto a master by royalty or unofficially by commoners.
Music[edit]
Basic drum set
Music is used in silat to determine the rhythm of a trainee's movements. This training aspect, often simplistically seen as 'performance', is what is known as pencak. These movements are often displayed during festivities such as weddings or a royal installation. They can be done either solo or with a partner and are accompanied by music played by a live band. Several traditional dances were influenced by silat, such as the inai from northern Malaysia. In the Minangkabau area silat is one of the main components in the men's folk dance called randai,[13] besides bakaba (storytelling) and saluang jo dendang (song-and-flute).
The music played during silat performances is known as gendang baku in the Malay Peninsula, and gendang pencha among the Sunda people of West Java. The traditional tunes are often influenced by Nepalese music. The instruments vary from one region to another but the gamelan (Javanese orchestra), kendang or gendang (drum), suling (flute) and gong are common throughout Southeast Asia. Drums are the main and sometimes only instrument in Minang silat of West Sumatra. The most common instruments in Malaysia are the gendang (drums) and serunai (oboe). Music from the northern part of the Malay Peninsula more closely resembles Thai music.
Types of silat drums include the gendang ibu or 'mother drum' and the gendang anak or 'child drum'. The serunai, which also comes in long and short variations, is what gives silat music its distinct sound.
In popular culture[edit]
Film[edit]
Silat's appearance in film dates back to black-and-white Indonesian and Malay movies. Shaw Brothers and Cathay-Kris Studio produced more than 40 popular titles featuring silat in Malaysia during the 1950s-60s. Famous examples from this period include Tiger from Tjampa (1953),[14]Panglima Besi, Seri Mersing, Musang Berjanggut, Hang Jebat, Serikandi, and Malaysia's first colour movie, Hang Tuah. While silat was featured in all these films for the purpose of the plot, the depiction of the art was not a priority. What was shown was essentially silat wayang, designed for stage performances. There was very little choreography arranged beforehand and they were never promoted as either action or martial art movies. Accordingly, actors at the time usually had no prior training in silat, resulting in what are now considered generally poor depictions of the art. However, silat became increasingly prominent in Indonesian movies during the 70s, resulting in more professional and authentic depictions of the art in both historical films as well as action movies. Indonesian action stars Ratno Timoer and Advent Bangun were famous for 80s silat films such as The Devil's Sword and Malaikat Bayangan. In Malaysia on the other hand, silat became increasingly rare on-screen during the subsequent decades. After the year 2000, silat was featured to varying degrees of importance in popular Malay movies such as Jiwa Taiko, Gong, KL Gangster, Pontianak Harum Sundal Malam, and the colour remake of Orang Minyak. Other notable instances of authentic silat in film include the following.
- Puteri Gunung Ledang, Malaysia's first big-budget movie, featured two highly publicised fights choreographed by a silat exponent. Upon the film's release these scenes were not well-received, with reviewers criticising the battles as badly-choreographed, too short, and generally over-hyped.[15]
- Queens of Langkasuka is the first Thai film to prominently feature silat. Among the few other Thai movies to do so is 2008's Ong-Bak 2 which only briefly features a style of tiger silat.
- The 2009 Indonesian film Merantau showcased Silek Harimau, one of the oldest silat systems in existence. The film had a positive reaction from cinema critics[16] and is credited with reviving Indonesia's martial arts in film.[17][18] The movie generated enough interest for the lead actor to follow up with The Raid: Redemption in 2011 which received international acclaim. Its sequel The Raid 2: Berandal was similarly well-received but drew much criticism for its graphic violence,[19][20] leading to the film being banned in certain countries including Malaysia.[21]
- The 2014 Indonesian movie The Golden Cane Warrior has helped revive interest in the historical silat genre (cerita silat) which has been dormant in film for years.[22]
- The 2014 Brunei movie Yasmine is about a teenage female protagonist who learns silat.[23]
- The Indonesian movie Wiro Sableng 212 (2018) also revived the historical silat genre, adapted from popular silat novel series in Indonesia titled Wiro Sableng. Set on the 16th century island of Java, it tell the story of Wiro Sableng, a young pendekar received a task from his teacher Sinto Gendeng, a mysterious old female warrior, to arrest Mahesa Birawa, an evil villain which is also her former student.[24]
Television[edit]
Silat finals at the SEA Games XXVI
Period dramas which feature silat have been a common staple of Indonesian television for many decades, typically supplemented by wire-work and/or CG effects. In Malaysia, this genre is said to have reached its peak during the 1990s when directors like Uwei Shaari strove to depict silat in its original form by casting martial artists rather than famous actors. Series from that period such as Keris Lok Tujuh, Pendekar: Bayangan Harta and Keris Hitam Bersepuh Emas are still regarded as the country's best costume dramas before the genre began to decline in Malaysia after the early 2000s. Aside from period dramas, authentic silat is often featured in other genres, such as the Indonesian series Mawar Merah and the made-for-TV children's movie Borobudur. In Malaysia, various styles of silat are regularly showcased in martial arts-themed documentary serials like Mahaguru, Gelanggang and Gerak Tangkas. Other instances of silat on television include the following.
- An episode of Discovery Channel's series Fight Quest showcased pencak silat in Bandung, Indonesia .[25]
Literature[edit]
Silat in the literary tradition can be traced back to the old hikayat or epics which became popular as literacy spread among Southeast Asian commoners, specifically commoners from the Malay Peninsula beginning around the 13th century. Stories such as Hikayat Inderajaya and Hikayat Hang Tuah from Malaysia, focus on legendary or semi-historical martial artists. In Indonesia, this tradition has continued into modern times in the form of historical silat novels or cerita silat, equivalent to the Chinese wuxia genre. Notable authors include Bastian Tito, Kho Ping Ho and S.H. Mintardja whose popular books have been adapted into period-dramas for television such as Wira Sableng and Naga Sasra Sabuk Intan. While this genre is nearly unknown in Malaysia, silat does sometimes feature in Malay novels and anthologies set during the Malacca Sultanate era. Outside Asia, silat was referenced in Tom Clancy's Net Force by Steve Perry, although the books give a fictionalized portrayal of the art.
Comics[edit]
The earliest instance of silat in graphic novels are found in Indonesian comics of the 1960s which typically featured heroes that were expert martial artists. The titles Si Buta Dari Gua Hantu, Jaka Sembung, Panji Tengkorak and Walet Merah all gave rise to popular films in the 1970s and 80s. Indonesian action star Barry Prima made a name for himself portraying the character of Jaka Sembung onscreen. Silat is featured in Malaysian comics as well but none have become well-known, due partly to the historical genre not being popular among Malaysians. Outside Southeast Asia, silat was also featured in the Japanese manga Kenichi: The Mightiest Disciple.
Radio[edit]
The most well-known Indonesian radio shows began in the 1980s, all of them historical dramas concerning the adventures of martial artists in Hindu-Buddhist kingdoms of medieval Java and Sumatra. The most famous of these were Saur Sepuh, Tutur Tinular and its sequel Mahkota Mayangkara. Each programme was highly successful in their home country, and continue to spawn films and television series.
See also[edit]
References[edit]
- ^ abcGreen, Thomas A. (2010). Martial Arts of the World: An Encyclopedia of History and Innovation. ABC-CLIO. ISBN9781598842432.
- ^'Pencak Silat | Asian Games 2018 Jakarta - Palembang'. Asian Games 2018 Jakarta - Palembang. Retrieved 2 September 2018.
- ^Tan Sri Dato' Seri Ahmad Sarji bin Abdul Hamid. The Encyclopedia Of Malaysia: Sports And Recreation. Kuala Lumpur: Archipelago Press.
- ^ abcdeSheikh Shamsuddin (2005). The Malay Art Of Self-defense: Silat Seni Gayong. North Atlantic Books. ISBN1-55643-562-2.
- ^Silat Dinobatkan Seni Beladiri Terbaik by Pendita Anuar Abd. Wahab AMN (pg. 42 SENI BELADIRI June 2007, no: 15(119) P 14369/10/2007)
- ^Maryono, O'ong; Keary, Lisa; Sciortino, Rosalia (2002). Pencak Silat in the Indonesian Archipelago. Yayasan Galang. ISBN9789799341600.
- ^MA, Prof Dr H. Saifullah SA; M.Hum, Dr Febri Yulika, S. Ag (1 December 2017). PERTAUTAN BUDAYA - SEJARAH MINANGKABAU & NEGERI SEMBILAN (in Indonesian). ISI Padangpanjang. ISBN9786025084669.
- ^ abcdefDonn F. Draeger (1992). Weapons and fighting arts of Indonesia. Rutland, Vt. : Charles E. Tuttle Co. ISBN978-0-8048-1716-5.
- ^ abcdeZainal Abidin Shaikh Awab and Nigel Sutton (2006). Silat Tua: The Malay Dance Of Life. Kuala Lumpur: Azlan Ghanie Sdn Bhd. ISBN978-983-42328-0-1.
- ^Thesis: Seni Silat Melayu by Abd Rahman Ismail (USM 2005 matter 188)
- ^Donn F. Draeger and Robert W. Smith (1980). Comprehensive Asian fighting arts. Kodansha International. ISBN978-0-87011-436-6.
- ^Martial Arts of the World: R-Z. ABC-CLIO. ISBN1576071502.
- ^Kirstin Pauka (2003). 'Umbuik Mudo and the Magic Flute: A Randai Dance-Drama'. Asian Theatre Journal. 20 (2).
- ^The Tiger from Tjampa, retrieved 2 September 2018
- ^Hari Azizan (2004). 'Good enough... for a local film'. The Star (Malaysia). Archived from the original on 2 November 2013.
- ^Brown, Todd (23 July 2009). 'PiFan 09 Review: MERANTAU'. Twitch Film. Archived from the original on 27 July 2009.
- ^Kurniasari, Triwik (2 August 2009). '`MERANTAU' revives Indonesia's martial arts in film'. The Jakarta Post.
- ^'Merantau Warrior'. Fortean Times. Archived from the original on 29 October 2013. Retrieved 10 May 2012.
- ^'Review: The Raid 2 is too gory to stomach'. Rediff. 30 May 2014.
- ^Mancini, Vince (22 January 2014). 'Paramedics Called To 'Raid 2′ Premiere: 'The Most Violent Mainstream Film Since Passion Of The Christ''. UPROXX.
- ^Awani, Astro (8 April 2014). 'The Raid 2: Berandal banned due to excessive violence'. astroawani.com.
- ^The Golden Cane Warrior, retrieved 2 September 2018
- ^Yasmine (2014) (Review), retrieved 7 January 2019
- ^'Wiro Sableng 212', imdb.com, retrieved 2 September 2018
- ^TV.com. 'Fight Quest: Indonesia (Pencak Silat)'. TV.com. Retrieved 2 September 2018.
Further reading[edit]
- Quintin Chambers and Donn F. Draeger (1979). Javanese Silat: The Fighting Art of Perisai Diri. Tokyo: Kodansha Internat. ISBN0-87011-353-4.
- DeMarco, M. (2010). 'Practical Fighting Strategies of Indonesian Kuntao-Silat in the Willem Reeders Tradition'
- Sarina Md. Yusof, Suhana Aiman and Norlizah Abdul Hamid (2005). Physiological Profile of Malaysian Silat Olahraga Athletes. Institute of Research, Development and Commersialisation (BRC), Universiti Teknologi MARA, Malaysia, Project file no.: 600-FSR (5/2)27.
External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Silat. |
- Pusat Cemerlang Silat indonesian
silat information centre
- Silat Terminology List Common Javanese Silat Terms
- Silat Classes in the US Silat Classes in the US.
Retrieved from 'https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Silat&oldid=902368620'
Pencak silat in West Sumatra
Pencak silat (Indonesian pronunciation: [ˈpent͡ʃak ˈsilat]; in Western writings sometimes spelled 'pentjak silat' or phonetically as 'penchak silat') is an umbrella term for a class of related Indonesian martial arts.[1] In neighbouring countries the term usually refers to professional competitive silat. It is a full-body fighting form incorporating strikes, grappling and throwing in addition to weaponry. Every part of the body is used and subject to attack. Pencak silat was practiced not only for physical defense but also for psychological ends.[2]
The leading organization of pencak silat in Indonesia is Ikatan Pencak Silat Indonesia (Pencak Silat Association of Indonesia). The liaison body for international pencak silat is the International Pencak Silat Association or PERSILAT (Persekutuan Pencak Silat Antara Bangsa).
Pencak silat is one of the sports included in the Southeast Asian Games and other region-wide competitions. Pencak silat first made its debut in 1987 Southeast Asian Games and 2018 Asian Games, both were held in Indonesia.[3]
- 2History
- 4Styles and schools
- 5Techniques
- 6International competitions
Etymology[edit]
Silat is a collective word for a class of indigenous martial arts from the geo-cultural area of Southeast Asia, more precisely in the Malay Archipelago, a region known locally as Nusantara.[4] The origin of the word silat is uncertain. The Malay term silat is linked to Minangkabau word silek. Due to Sumatran origin of the language, the Sumatran origin of the term is likely.[4]
Although the word silat is widely known throughout much of Southeast Asia, the term pencak silat is used mainly in Indonesia. Pencak silat was chosen in 1948 as a unifying term for the Indonesian fighting styles. It was a compound of the two most commonly used words for martial arts in Indonesia. Pencak was the term used in central and east Java, while silat was used in Sumatra, Malay Peninsula and Borneo. In Minang usage, pencak and silat are seen as being two aspects of the same practice. Pencak is the essence of training, the outward aspect of the art which a casual observer is permitted to witness as performance. Silat is the essence of combat and self-defense, the true fighting application of the techniques which are kept secret from outsiders and not divulged to students until the guru deems them ready. While other definitions exist, all agree that silat cannot exist without pencak, and pencak without silat skills is purposeless.[5]
The origin of the words pencak and silat have not been proven. Some believe that pencak comes from the Sanskrit word pancha meaning five, or from the Chinese term pencha or pungcha which implies parrying or deflecting, and striking or pressing.[6]
Other terms may be used in particular dialects such as silek, penca, mancak, maen po or main-po.
Other terms may be used in particular dialects such as silek, penca, mancak, maen po or main-po.
Dutch East Indian newspapers of the colonial era recorded the terms for martial arts under Dutch spellings. These include silat, pencak (spelled in Dutch as 'pentjak'), penca ('pentjah'), mancak ('mentjak'), manca ('mentjah'), and pukulan ('poekoelan').[7] In 1881 a magazine calls mancak a Batak fencing game 'with long swords, daggers or wood (mentjah)'[8] These papers described mancak as Malayan (Maleidsche) suggesting that the word originates in Sumatra.[9] These terms were used separately from silat in the Dutch East Indies.[10] The terms pukulan or main pukulan (spelled 'maen poekoelan' in Dutch) referred to the fighting systems of Jakarta but was also used generally for the martial arts of other parts of Indonesia such as Sumatra and Lombok.[7] Believed to be a Betawi term, it derives from the words for play (main) and hit (pukulan).
History[edit]
Origins[edit]
Bas-relief of a battle scene at Prambanan Temple depicting weapons of the time such as the sword, shield, club, bow, and a kris-like dagger
The oral history of Indonesia begins with the arrival of Aji Saka (lit. primordial king) from India to Java. At the request of the local people, he successfully killed the monarch Dewata Cengkar of Medang Kamulan in battle and took his place as ruler. This story traditionally marks the rise of Java and the dawn of its Dharmic civilisation. The tale also illustrates the influence India had on Indonesian and Southeast Asian culture in general. Aji Saka is shown to be a fighter and swordsman, while his servants are also depicted as fighting with daggers. The Indian method of knife-duelling was adapted by the Batak and Bugis-Makassar peoples. Ancient Indonesian art from this period also depicts warriors mounted on elephants wielding Chinese weapons such as the jian or straight double-edge sword, which is still used in Java.
The earliest evidence of pencak silat being taught in a structured manner comes from 6th-century[11]Riau from where it spread to the Minangkabau capital in West Sumatra. The Minangkabau had a clan-based feudal government. Military officers called hulubalang acted as bodyguards to the king or yam tuan. Minang warriors served without pay. The plunder was divided among them according to military merit, so fighters strove to outdo each other. They were skilled horsemen with the native pony and also expert bladesmiths, producing arms both for their own use and for export to Aceh. Traditional Minang society was based around matrilineal custom, so pencak silat was commonly practiced by women.[1] As pencak silat became widespread in Srivijaya, the empire was defeated by the Tamil Cholas of south India in the 13th century. The Tamil stick fighting art of silambam is still the most common Indian fighting system in Southeast Asia today.
During the 13th century, Ken Arok, a thug turned into a self made hero and ruler, took over the power from Kediri Kingdom and established the Rajasa Dynasty. This is pretty much reflected the jago (people's champion) culture of ancient Java, where a self made cunning man skillful in martial arts, could rally supports and took over the kingdom.[12] His successor, the warrior-king Kertanegara of Singhasari conquered the Melayu Kingdom, Maluku Islands, Bali, and other neighbouring areas. From 1280-1289, Kublai Khan sent envoys demanding that Singhasari submit to the Khan as Jambi and Melayu had already done, but Kertanegara responded defiantly by scarring the last envoy's face. Kublai Khan retaliated by sending a punitive expedition of 1000 junks to Java, but Kertanegara had already been killed by a vassal in Kediri before the Yuan force arrived. His son-in-law Raden Wijaya replaced Kertanegara as leader and allied himself with the arriving Mongol army. With their help Raden Wijaya was able to defeat the Kediri forces. With his silat-trained warriors, Raden Wijaya then turned on the Mongols so that they fled back to China. The village he founded became the Majapahit empire. This was the first empire to unite all of Indonesia's major islands, and pencak silat reached its technical zenith during this period. In Majapahit, pencak silat became the specialised property of the nobility and its advanced secrets were hidden from commoners.[1]
Colonial era[edit]
Balinese warriors armed with kris in the 1880s
The lucrative spice trade eventually brought colonists from Europe, first the Portuguese followed by the Dutch and British. The Dutch East India Company became the dominant power and established full colonial rule in Indonesia. Local revolts and uprisings were common, but all were suppressed by the Dutch armed with guns and cannons. The Dutch brought in even more Chinese workers to Indonesia, which brought a greater variety of local kuntao systems. But while the Europeans could effectively overtake and hold the cities, they found it impossible to control the smaller villages and roads connecting them. Indonesians took advantage of this, fighting an underground war through guerilla tactics. Local weapons were recorded as being used against the Dutch, particularly knives and edged weapons such as the golok, parang, kris and klewang.
During the 17th century, the Bugis people of Sulawesi allied with the Dutch colonists to destroy Mangkasara rule over the surrounding area. While this increased Bugis power in the southwest, Dutch rule deprived seafaring merchants like the Bugis of their traditional employment. As a result, these communities increasingly turned to piracy during the 17th-18th centuries. Not only was pencak silat practiced by the pirates, but new styles were created to combat them.
During the Dutch colonial era of the 18th and 19th century, the exploitative social and economic condition of the colony created the culture of the jago or local people's champion regarded as thugs and bandits by the colonial administration. Parallels can be seen in the jawara of Priangan, jagoan of Betawi, and warok in the Ponorogo region of East Java. The most infamous band of jagoan was the 19th century Si Pitung and Si Jampang, experts in Silat Betawi. Traditionally depicted as Robin Hood-like figures, they upheld justice for the common man by robbing from the rich who acquired power and status by collaborating with the colonists. The jago were despised by the Dutch authorities as criminals and thieves but were highly respected by the native pribumi and local Chinese.
Modern era[edit]
Conflict with the European rulers provided an impetus for the proliferation of new styles of pencak silat, now founded on the platform of nationalism and the desire for freedom from colonisation. The Indonesian Pencak Silat Association (IPSI) was founded in 1948 to bring all of Indonesia's pencak silat under a single administration. The world's oldest nationwide silat organisation, its basis is that all pencak silat is built on a common source, and that less functional styles must give way to the technically superior. IPSI has avoided the tendency of modern martial arts that gravitate towards sport. The resistance to sport has lessened over time, however, and sparring in particular has become less combative. While nominally an Indonesian organisation, many of the rules and regulations outlined by IPSI have become the de facto standard for silat competitions worldwide. Indo-Dutch Eurasians who first began practicing pencak silat in the 20th century[7] spread the art to the west in the late 20th century.
Today pencak silat is one of the extra-curricular activities taught in Indonesian schools. It is included as a combat sport in local, national and international athletic events such as the SEA Games and Indonesia's National Sports Week. Since 2012, the Pencak Malioboro Festival has been held annually and features demonstrations by the biggest silat schools in Indonesia.
Weapons[edit]
As with most ancient fighting arts, pencak silat historically prioritized weapons over unarmed combat. While this is usually not the case today, all pencak silat schools include weapons to some degree of importance. While pencak silat includes a wide array of weapons, the following are considered standard in all classical styles. In addition to these, many systems include a specialty or 'secret' weapon taught only to advanced students.
- Toya: Staff usually made of rattan but sometimes wood or metal. Typically measures 5–6 feet long and 1.5-2 inches in diameter.
- Tombak/Lembing: Spear or javelin made of bamboo, steel or wood that sometimes has horsehair attached near the blade.
- Parang: Machete-like chopper, ranging from 10 to 36 inches long
- Golok: Heavy cleaver measuring 10-20 inches long. The blade is heaviest in the centre
- Pisau: Any short-bladed knife
- Kris: Double-edged dagger made by folding different types of metal together and then washing it in acid.
- Sabit/Celurit: A sickle, commonly used in farming, cultivation and harvesting of crops.
- Tongkat/Galah: Short stick or cudgel
- Pedang: Sword, most often single-edged and either straight or slightly curved. Usually measures 15-35 inches overall with a blade upward of 10 inches long
- Klewang: Single-edge longsword with a protruding notch near its tip
- Chabang: Short-handled trident, literally meaning 'branch'
- Selendang: A silk that can be used for strangling, grappling and whipping
- Kerambit: A small curved knife resembling a claw.
Styles and schools[edit]
Over 150 styles of pencak silat are recognised in Indonesia,[13] although the actual number of existing systems is well beyond that. Older methods are typically identified with specific ethno-cultural groups or particular regions.
Riau[edit]
Much of what constitutes classical Malay culture has its origin in the Riau Archipelago, including the earliest evidence of silat. Referred to as silat Melayu, the regional fighting systems of Riau have influenced nearly the entirety of Indonesian pencak silat, and into neighbouring Singapore and Malaysia. Fighting tactics dating back to the Srivijaya empire persist in Palembang today. Wide stances with the front foot turned slightly inward are typical, developed for fighting on Riau's muddy ground, while also preventing the knee joint from being exposed to frontal kicks. Seizing techniques which grab the arm are common. The most prominent weapons in silat Melayu are the staff (toya) and the spear. Spear forms in Riau usually begin with the blade pointed downward. Staff technique in silat Melayu of the Palembang area is said to be the best in all of Indonesian pencak silat. The weapon is made of wood and usually measures seven feet long. Fixed hand positions with very little sliding along the staff is characteristic of silat Melayu.
Minangkabau[edit]
Minangkabau randai performance, incorporating some Minang silek movements.
The Minangkabau formed the dominant sovereignty in West Sumatra and make up the majority of Sumatran pencak silat systems. These styles may be referred to as silat Minangkabau, silat Padang (lit. field silat), or silek, the local pronunciation of silat. Very few systems in Indonesia have not been influenced by silek, and its techniques form the core of pencak silat throughout Sumatra. It developed as an extension of the original silat Melayu from Riau. Folklore traces this to five masters, namely Ninik Datuak Suri Dirajo from Padang Panjang, Kambiang Utan ('forest goat') from Cambodia, Harimau Campo ('tiger of Champa') from Vietnam, Kuciang Siam ('Siamese cat') from Thailand and Anjiang Mualim ('teacher dog') from Gujarat.[14][15] Stealth and ambush were the preferred Minang war tactics, and they were said to be among the best assassins in the world when dispatched singly. Silek Minangkabau is characterised by its low stances and reliance on kicks and leg tactics. The low stance is said to have developed to offset the chance of falling on slippery ground, common in the rice fields of West Sumatra. The local practice of paddling rafts with the legs strengthened fighters' lower body muscles. Hand and arm movements are fast, honed through an exercise in which the exponent stands across from a partner tossing sharpened sticks or knives. The practitioner must redirect the sticks or knives and send them back at the thrower, using their hands and a minimum of movements with the rest of the body.
There are currently around ten major styles of silek, a few of which like Silek Lintau are commonly practiced even in Malaysia. IPSI recognises Silek Harimau (tiger silek) as among the oldest pencak silat in existence. Silek Harimau, also known as silek kuciang or cat silek, epitomizes the Minang techniques in that it focuses on crouching and kicking from a low position paired with rapid hand attacks. Sitaralak imitates the power of a herd of stampeding elephants. Developed as a counter to silek Harimau, folklore tells that its practitioners were able to fight tigers. Sandang is the counter-system to Sitaralak, which defends against powerful attacks by misdirection. Kumango is another characteristically Minang system in its kicks and footwork. Its frequent thigh-slapping and taiji-like redirection maneuvers indicate both Indian and Chinese influence. Silek Tuo is considered by some to be the oldest Minang system due to its name meaning 'old silek', but others claim it traces to the freedom fighter Tuanku Nan Tuo after whom it was named. All the classical pencak silat weapons are used in silek but the most prominent Minang weapons are the pedang (sword), tumbak (spear), karih (dagger), klewang (longsword), sabik (sickle), payung (umbrella), kurambik (claw), and various types of knives.
Java[edit]
From Srivijaya, pencak silat quickly spread eastward into the Javanese Sailendra and Medang Kingdoms where the fighting arts developed in three geographical regions: West Java, Central Java, and East Java. Today Java is home to more styles of pencak silat than any other Indonesian island, and displays the greatest diversity of techniques. Many Javanese schools such as Perisai Diri and Inti Ombak have been established internationally in Asia, Europe and America. Merpati Putih or 'white dove' style was developed in the keraton (royal courts) of 17th century Mataram[16] and was not taught publicly until 1963. Today it is the standard unarmed martial art of the Indonesian National Armed Forces.[17] It includes weapons but focuses more on empty-handed self-defense and the development of internal strength developed through breathing techniques.[18] Pencak silat in Java draws from traditional kejawen and Hindu-Buddhist Javanese beliefs but after Indonesia's independence, some schools have adapted themselves in the context of modern religion.[19] Among the most popular modern styles is the Muslim-directed Tapak Suci. An evasive long-range system, it requires constant movement as the practitioner rotates on their own axis every few seconds. Similarly the Setia Hati school is Christian-organised. Rooted in silek Minangkabau of the Padang area, it relies on kicks and footwork while the hands are mainly used defensively for blocking and parrying.
Sunda[edit]
Java's western region was the first area from which pencak silat spread out of Sumatra. The Sundanese pencak silat of West Java may be called silat Sunda or silat Bandung. In the Sundanese language they are generically referred to as penca (dialect form of pencak), ameng, ulin or maen po (from the word main meaning 'play'). Ameng is the more respectful term, while ulin and maen po are of lower speech levels. Sunda systems are easily identified by the prefix ci (spelled 'tji' by the Dutch). Pronounced 'chi', it comes from the Sundanese word cai meaning river water, alluding to the fact that they were originally developed in river-basin areas. The deep, wide stance and resulting gait attests to this, owing to the practice of carefully placing the feet from a lifted position onto wet ground. Today, systems of Sunda derivation prefixed with ci are found even in the high plateaus and mountain ranges of both West and Central Java. Penca instruction was traditionally done through apprenticeship, wherein prospective students offer to work as a servant in the master's house or a labourer in the rice fields. In exchange for working during the day, the master provides the student's meals and trains during the evening. Penca is characterized by reliance on hand and arm movements for both attack and defense. Compared to other Javanese systems, Sunda styles have less frontal contact with the opponent, instead preferring to evade in a circular manner and attack from the side. In one form of training designed to practice circular evasion, victory is attained simply by touching the opponent's torso. Fasting and mantra were traditionally used to heighten the senses for this purpose.
The oldest styles of penca were based on animals and movements of farming or tending the fields. IPSI recognises Cimacan (tiger style), Ciular (snake style), and Pamonyet (monkey style) as among the oldest existing pencak silat. Cimacan is said to have been created by a Buddhist monk. The most prominent system of West Java is penca Cimande, first taught publicly by a Badui man named Embah Kahir in Cimande village of the Sukabumi area around 1760.[20] Cimande among the isolationist Badui community is said to be much older than Embah Kahir, and is believed by many masters to be the original penca of West Java tracing back to Pakuan Pajajaran. Cimande is a close-quarters system, with the elbows held close to the body. Students begin by learning to fight from a seated position before they are taught footwork. Arms are traditionally conditioned through smashing coconuts, by concentrating the force of the blow into the wrist. Cimande always assumes there is a minimum of three enemies, but advanced students may spar with up to twelve opponents. As a defensive art, Cimande has no lethal techniques. The town of Cianjur - seen as the heartland of Sunda culture - is associated with a few systems, the most prominent of them being Cikalong or bat style. Borrowing its technical base from Cimande, Cikalong was founded by Raden Jayaperbata after meditating in a cave in the Cikalong Kulon village. While Cimande may attack with either the fists or open hands, Cikalong prefers the latter. Prominent Sunda weapons include the toya (staff), cabang (forked truncheon), long-bladed parang (machete) and heavy golok (cleaver). The advanced weapon is the piau or throwing knife.
Betawi[edit]
Silat Betawi demonstration in Jakarta
Among the Betawi people of Greater Jakarta, the pencak silat tradition is rooted in the culture of the jagoan or jawara, local champions seen as heroes of the common people. They went against colonial authority and were despised by the Dutch as thugs and bandits. Silat Betawi is referred to in the local dialect as maen pukulan or main pukulan, literally meaning 'strike-play'. The most well-known schools are Cingkrik, Kwitang, and Beksi. The acrobatic monkey-inspired Cingkrik is likely the oldest, the name implying agile movement. The art is said to trace back to a monkey style of kuntao attributed to Rama Isruna after his wife observed the actions of monkeys. A student of this kuntao named Ki Maing later expanded on the system after a monkey stole his walking stick. Cingkrik is highly evasive; blows are delivered as a counter after parrying or blocking, and usually target the face, throat and groin. Attacks mimic the grabbing and tearing actions of monkeys. Kwitang also employs evasion and some open-hand strikes but its focus is on powerful punches with the fist tightly-closed at the moment of impact, mainly targeting the centreline. Force is concentrated into the knuckles of the little and ring finger. Attacks are made with a curved arm; the elbow is never fully extended so as to prevent being caught in a joint lock. Beksi, meaning 'defense of four directions', is credited to a man named Lie Cheng Hok. It is distinguishable from other Betawi systems by its close-distance combat style and lack of offensive leg action. Silat Betawi includes all the classical pencak silat weapons, but places particular emphasis on the parang (machete), golok (chopper), toya (staff), and pisau (knife). Kwitang practitioners are said to be the best chabang fighters in Indonesia.[21]
Bali[edit]
Following the invasion by Demak, many families of the Majapahit empire fled to Bali. The descendants of the Majapahit were traditionally resistant to outside influence and as a result, the people of Bali often make a distinction between 'pure' Balinese pencak silat and styles introduced from outside such as Perisai Diri. The native systems - known locally as pencak - are ultimately rooted in those of Java, and preserve tactics dating back to the Majapahit empire. They are less direct than other styles, characteristically favouring deception over aggression. Hand movements are used to distract, and openings are deliberately exposed to bluff the opponent into attacking. This approach requires that exponents train their flexibility and stamina. As with Balinese warriors of the past, modern pencak practitioners in Bali often wear headbands as part of their uniform.
There are about four main systems considered purely Balinese. The most prominent of these is Bakti Negara, which is firmly rooted in the old local Hindu philosophy of Tri Hita Karana.[22] Another system which has gained prominence is Seruling Dewata meaning 'God's flute'. Purported to date back to ancient times, it recognizes the Indian Buddhist monk Bodhidharma as the first patriarch, though not its creator. Eka Sentosa Setiti (ESSTI) was the first pencak silat association officially founded in Bali. Created and practiced in the island's south, it draws heavily from southern Saolim kuntao. The primary stance is the ting posture of kuntao, also the main stance of Japanese aikido. ESSTI keeps membership low and does not permit outsiders to view sparring matches. Finally, the Tridharma style is practiced in northern Bali. It utilizes circular hand movements and straight kicks. The ESSTI and Tridharma schools often exchange students so cross-training between the styles is common. All Balinese pencak schools traditionally keep sportive contests and performance to a minimum in order to emphasise combat effectiveness.
Bugis-Makassar[edit]
The Bugis (Ugi) and Makassar people (Mangkasara) are two related maritime groups from Sulawesi. The Bugis in particular were renowned navigators and shipbuilders, but also feared as corsairs and slave-traders. Both the Bugis and Makassarese were famous for piracy, though this was more common among the former than the latter. As sailors for whom the knife is a vital tool, Bugis and Makassar combatives (known locally as silat) favour blades. The primary weapon is an indigenous knife called the badik. Other weapons include the sele (dagger), berang (machete), cabang (forked truncheon), and the mandau (cleaver). Silat in Sulawesi is closely tied to local animism, and weapons are believed to be imbued with a spirit of their own. Hand and arm movements are designed to be adaptable for use with a knife or with the empty hands. Attacks with the fists or open hands can be modified with a pinching action of the fingers, which has its origin in the pinch-grip of the badik. Bugis styles (silat Ugi) are based on these hand and arm movements and contain only limited kicks, almost all of the linear variety. The Bugis kekuda is identical to the southern Chinese horse stance. Styles from southwestern Sulawesi generally come under the Makassar category (silat Mangkasara). Chief among them are the kuntao-influenced tiger style Karena Macang and the kick-based Manca Tonaja from southern Sulawesi, which is believed to have Minang roots. The mangrove swamps and rocky inlets along the coasts of Sulawesi served as hiding places for pirates, so silat among the Bugis and Makasar community makes use of and defends against ambush. Countering surprise attacks is the specialty of Silat Tapu, a secretive system taught only to experienced practitioners.
Aceh[edit]
Located on Sumatra's northwest coast on the westernmost tip of the archipelago, Aceh was the first port of call for traders sailing the Indian Ocean. Local culture and weapons (particularly knives) show distinct Indian-Muslim derivation. Unlike the more typical rattan shield, the Acehnese buckler is identical to the Indian dhal (shield), made from metal and with five or seven knobs on the surface. The Acehnese are recorded by both Indonesian and European sources as being the most warlike people in all of Sumatra, and this is reflected in the highly-aggressive nature of their pencak silat. Acehnese pencak silat borrows its foundation from silat Melayu and silek Minangkabau, particularly the arm-seizing techniques of the former and the ground-sitting postures of the latter. Bladed weaponry is favoured, specifically knives and swords. The primary weapon is the rencong, an L-shaped dagger used mainly for thrusting but also for slashing. The kris is used as well but the native rencong takes precedence.
Batak[edit]
Batak land is situated between the Minangkabau to the south and Aceh to the north, and the culture shows both Indian and Chinese influence. The word Batak refers to a number of ethnic groups originally from the mountains of North Sumatra. The term typically refers to the Toba Batak while others may explicitly reject that label, preferring to identify themselves by their specific group. Batak silat is known by different names in each community, namely mossak (Toba), moncak (Mandailing), ndikar (Simalungun) and dihar (Karo). Mossak is the most commonly-used due to the Toba being the most numerous. While each style is distinct, all share similar characteristics and weaponry. The Batak were historically in a near-perpetual state of warfare with their neighbours, so warriors trained daily for combat. Training was either done outdoors or in the balai, a building in the kampung specifically made for combat practice. Batak silat is primarily armed, employing such weapons as the spear, single-edge blade, and a short-bladed knife known as the raut. The raut is similar to the badik both in appearance and in its pinch-grip. The most common target is the opponent's midsection. The weapon is held loosely and used in an upward or downward hacking motion. Once the raut has pierced the enemy, the fighter pushes the knife further in with a palm strike. Unarmed techniques are derived from silek Minangkabau, as the kicks and footwork are well-suited to the mountainous Batak country.
Maluku[edit]
Pencak silat in the Maluku Islands uses a wide variety of weaponry, some of which are indigenous to the area. The particular specialty of Moluccan silat is the cabang (forked truncheon), pisau (knife), and the wooden or metal galah (staff). The local pedang (sword) is long-bladed and associated with female fighters. On Haruku Island, particular emphasis is placed on one-legged stances. This tactic was developed for fighting in the ankle-deep sands of the islands, allowing the exponent to use both kicking and eye-gouging techniques simultaneously.
Bajau[edit]
The Bajau are a seafaring people of Sulawesi. Often nomadic, they were traditionally born and raised on longboats at sea although this is increasingly exceptional as the community has been forced to settle on land in recent decades. Colonial records often mistook them for pirates but - unlike the neighbouring Bugis - the Bajau lacked the organization and technology for piracy. In fact, they more often clashed with pirates than engaging in raids themselves. Their main and often only weapon was the fishing spear, which functioned as a hunting tool on land. The Bajau utilized a wide array of these harpoons as weapons both thrown and unthrown. Their aim was impeccable, having been honed by fishing and hunting. The spear may be of nibong wood or bamboo, single-pronged or three-pronged, barbed or unbarbed, and tipped with wood or steel. Contact with the southern Philippines and the Sulu sultanate of Borneo allowed the Bajau to acquire other weapons through barter, specifically swords, shields, lances and parang. The most notable Bajau style of pencak silat is centered in Kendari. It is characterized by cross-legged stances and rapid turning, designed to be used in cramped spaces such as boats.
Techniques[edit]
Disarming a golok
Generalizations in pencak silat technique are very difficult; styles and movements are as diverse as the Indonesian archipelago itself. Individual disciplines can be offensive as in Aceh, evasive as in Bali, or somewhere in between. They may focus on strikes (pukulan), kicks (tendangan), locks (kuncian), weapons (senjata), or even on spiritual development rather than physical fighting techniques. Most styles specialize in one or two of these, but still make use of them all to some degree. Certain characteristics tend to prevail in particular geographical regions, as follows:
- Kicks - West Sumatra, North Sumatra
- Hands/Arms - West Java, Sulawesi, Kalimantan
- Grappling - East Java, Sumatra
- Strikes (hands and feet) - Bali, Central Java, Madura
Stances and steps[edit]
Students begin by learning basic body stances and steps. Steps or langkah are ways of moving the feet from one point to another during a fight. Pencak silat has several basic steps, known as langkah 8 penjuru or 'eight directions of steps'. Traditional music is often used as a signal to change body position when practicing langkah.[23]
Langkah are taught in conjunction with preset stances, meant to provide a foundation from which to defend oneself or to launch attacks. The most basic stance is the horse stance (kekuda or kuda-kuda), which provides stability and firm body position by strengthening the quads. Other stances may train the feet, legs, thighs, glutes and back. Other essential stances are the middle stance, the side stance, and the forward stance. The crawling tiger stance, in which the body is kept low in a ground-hugging position, is most common in Minang silek. Stances are essentially a combination of langkah, body posture, and movement. Through their correct application, the practitioner will be able to attack or defend whether standing, crouching, or sitting down, and alternate smoothly from one position to another. When the student has become familiar with stances and langkah, all are combined in forms or jurus.
Forms[edit]
A jurus in Silat Betawi
Forms or jurus are pre-meditated sets of steps and movements used for practicing proper technique, training agility, and conditioning the body. Repetition of jurus also develops muscle memory so the practitioner can act and react correctly within a split-second in any given combative situation without having to think. Either armed or unarmed, jurus may be solo, one against one, one against several, or even two against more than one. Forms involving more than one practitioner are meant to be performed at the speed of an actual fight. Real weapons are used in the case of armed jurus, but are sometimes unsharpened today. The kembang (lit. 'flower') aspect of forms consists of fluid movements with the hands and arms resembling traditional Indonesian dance. As with Korean Taekkyon, these movements are preparation for defending or reversing the opponent's attack. Musical accompaniment provides a metronome to indicate the rhythm of motion. For example, the beat of a drum might signify an attack. Those not aware of the combative nature of these moves often mistake the forms for dancing rather than the formalized training of fighting techniques.[2]
Offense[edit]
Pencak silat uses the whole body for attack. The basic strikes are the punch (pukul) and kick (tendang), with many variations in between. Strikes may be performed with the fists, open palms, shins, feet (kaki), elbows (sikut), knees (dengkul or lutut), shoulders (bahu), or the fingers (jari). Even basic attacks may vary depending on style, lineage, and regional origin.[24] Some systems may favour punching with the clenched fist, while others might prefer slapping with the palm of the hand. Other common tactics include feints (tipuan) or deceptive blows used as distraction, sweeping (sapuan) to knock the opponent down, and the scissors takedown (guntingan) which grips the legs around the opponent.
Defense[edit]
Defense in pencak silat consists of blocking, dodging, deflecting, and countering. Blocks or tangkisan are the most basic form of defense.[24] Because pencak silat may target any part of the body, blocks can be done with the forearms, hands, shoulders, or shins. Blocking with the elbows may even hurt the attacker. Attacks can also be used defensively, such as kneeing a kicking opponent's leg. Hard blocks, in which force is met with force, are most suitable when fighting opponents of the same strength or lower. Styles that rely on physical power favour this approach, such as Tenaga Dasar. To minimize any damage sustained by the defender when blocking in this way, body conditioning is used such as toughening the forearms by hitting them against hard surfaces. In cases where the opponent is of greater strength, evasion (elakan) or deflections (pesongan) would be used, and are actually preferred in certain styles.
International competitions[edit]
The major international competition is Pencak Silat World Championship, organised by PERSILAT.[25] This competition takes place every 2 or 3 years period. More than 30 national teams competed in recent tournaments in Jakarta (2010), Chiang Rai (2012) and Phuket (2015).
List of World Pencak Silat Championships[edit]
The championships have been referred to under different names:World Pencak Silat Championships or World Silat Championships or Pencak Silat World Championships.
Edition | Year | Host | Nations | Events |
---|---|---|---|---|
1 | 1982 World Pencak Silat Championships | Jakarta, Indonesia | 7 | |
2 | 1984 World Pencak Silat Championships | Jakarta, Indonesia | 9 | |
3 | 1986 World Pencak Silat Championships | Vienna, Austria | 14 | |
4 | 1987 World Pencak Silat Championships | Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia | 18 | |
5 | 1988 World Pencak Silat Championships | Singapore | 18 | |
6 | 1990 World Pencak Silat Championships | Den Haag, Netherlands | 18 | |
7 | 1992 World Pencak Silat Championships | Jakarta, Indonesia | 20 | |
8 | 1994 World Pencak Silat Championships | Hatyai, Thailand | 19 | |
9 | 1997 World Pencak Silat Championships | Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia | 20 | |
10 | 2000 World Pencak Silat Championships | Jakarta, Indonesia | 20 | |
11 | 2002 World Pencak Silat Championships | Penang, Malaysia | 19 | |
12 | 2004 World Pencak Silat Championships | Singapore | 20 | |
13 | 2007 World Pencak Silat Championships | Pahang, Malaysia | 26 | |
14 | 2010 World Pencak Silat Championships | Jakarta, Indonesia | 32 | 23 |
15 | 2012 World Pencak Silat Championships | Chiang Rai, Thailand | 26 | |
16 | 2015 World Pencak Silat Championships | Phuket, Thailand | 45 | 24 |
17 | 2016 World Pencak Silat Championships | Denpasar, Indonesia | 40 | 24 |
18 | 2018 World Pencak Silat Championships | Singapore | 40 | 24 |
All-medal table[edit]
Rank | Nation | Gold | Silver | Bronze | Total |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
1 | Indonesia(INA) | 60 | 30 | 32 | 122 |
2 | Vietnam(VIE) | 40 | 27 | 18 | 85 |
3 | Malaysia(MAS) | 19 | 15 | 25 | 59 |
4 | Thailand(THA) | 15 | 11 | 16 | 42 |
5 | Singapore(SIN) | 14 | 10 | 22 | 46 |
6 | Netherlands(NED) | 2 | 1 | 7 | 10 |
7 | Austria(AUT) | 1 | 1 | 1 | 3 |
8 | Uzbekistan(UZB) | 1 | 0 | 1 | 2 |
9 | Belgium(BEL) | 1 | 0 | 0 | 1 |
10 | Philippines(PHI) | 0 | 4 | 3 | 7 |
11 | Laos(LAO) | 0 | 1 | 2 | 3 |
12 | United States(USA) | 0 | 1 | 1 | 2 |
13 | Azerbaijan(AZE) | 0 | 1 | 0 | 1 |
14 | India(IND) | 0 | 0 | 4 | 4 |
15 | Algeria(ALG) | 0 | 0 | 3 | 3 |
16 | Brunei(BRU) | 0 | 0 | 2 | 2 |
Great Britain(GBR) | 0 | 0 | 2 | 2 | |
Iran(IRI) | 0 | 0 | 2 | 2 | |
Russia(RUS) | 0 | 0 | 2 | 2 | |
Suriname(SUR) | 0 | 0 | 2 | 2 | |
21 | Egypt(EGY) | 0 | 0 | 1 | 1 |
Kyrgyzstan(KGZ) | 0 | 0 | 1 | 1 | |
South Korea(KOR) | 0 | 0 | 1 | 1 | |
Totals (23 nations) | 153 | 102 | 148 | 403 |
2018 medal table[edit]
Rank | Nation | Gold | Silver | Bronze | Total |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
1 | Singapore(SGP) | 7 | 6 | 7 | 20 |
2 | Vietnam(VIE) | 6 | 3 | 4 | 13 |
3 | Indonesia(INA) | 5 | 5 | 5 | 15 |
4 | Malaysia(MAS) | 3 | 2 | 3 | 8 |
5 | Thailand(THA) | 2 | 5 | 4 | 11 |
6 | Uzbekistan(UZB) | 1 | 0 | 1 | 2 |
7 | Philippines(PHI) | 0 | 2 | 2 | 4 |
8 | United States(USA) | 0 | 1 | 0 | 1 |
9 | Netherlands(NED) | 0 | 0 | 5 | 5 |
10 | India(IND) | 0 | 0 | 4 | 4 |
11 | Algeria(ALG) | 0 | 0 | 2 | 2 |
Laos(LAO) | 0 | 0 | 2 | 2 | |
13 | Brunei(BRU) | 0 | 0 | 1 | 1 |
Egypt(EGY) | 0 | 0 | 1 | 1 | |
Great Britain(GBR) | 0 | 0 | 1 | 1 | |
Totals (15 nations) | 24 | 24 | 42 | 90 |
2016 medal table[edit]
Rank | Nation | Gold | Silver | Bronze | Total |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
1 | Indonesia(INA) | 12 | 4 | 4 | 20 |
2 | Vietnam(VIE) | 5 | 7 | 6 | 18 |
3 | Malaysia(MAS) | 3 | 3 | 3 | 9 |
4 | Singapore(SGP) | 2 | 1 | 8 | 11 |
5 | Thailand(THA) | 1 | 5 | 6 | 12 |
6 | Belgium(BEL) | 1 | 0 | 0 | 1 |
7 | Netherlands(NED) | 0 | 1 | 2 | 3 |
8 | Azerbaijan(AZE) | 0 | 1 | 0 | 1 |
Laos(LAO) | 0 | 1 | 0 | 1 | |
Philippines(PHI) | 0 | 1 | 0 | 1 | |
11 | Iran(IRI) | 0 | 0 | 2 | 2 |
Russia(RUS) | 0 | 0 | 2 | 2 | |
Suriname(SUR) | 0 | 0 | 2 | 2 | |
14 | Algeria(ALG) | 0 | 0 | 1 | 1 |
Great Britain(GBR) | 0 | 0 | 1 | 1 | |
South Korea(KOR) | 0 | 0 | 1 | 1 | |
United States(USA) | 0 | 0 | 1 | 1 | |
Totals (17 nations) | 24 | 24 | 39 | 87 |
2015 medal table[edit]
The seven-day event attracted 450 fighters from 40 nations and territories, competing in 24 weight categories in both the combat and performance events (18 combat event and 6 performance event).
Rank | Nation | Gold | Silver | Bronze | Total |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
1 | Indonesia(INA) | 9 | 7 | 3 | 19 |
2 | Vietnam(VIE) | 7 | 7 | 5 | 19 |
3 | Thailand(THA) | 4 | 1 | 6 | 11 |
4 | Malaysia(MAS) | 3 | 4 | 13 | 20 |
5 | Singapore(SIN) | 1 | 3 | 7 | 11 |
6 | Philippines(PHI) | 0 | 1 | 1 | 2 |
7 | Brunei(BRU) | 0 | 0 | 1 | 1 |
Totals (7 nations) | 24 | 23 | 36 | 83 |
Asian Pencak Silat Championships[edit]
Edition | Year | Host | Nations | Events |
---|---|---|---|---|
1 | 2011 Asian Pencak Silat Championships | Singapore, Singapore | 7 | |
2 | 2016 Asian Pencak Silat Championships | Singapore, Singapore | 6 | 23 |
2011 medal table[edit]
Rank | Nation | Gold | Silver | Bronze | Total |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
1 | Vietnam(VIE) | 11 | 6 | 4 | 21 |
2 | Singapore(SIN) | 5 | 3 | 10 | 18 |
3 | Indonesia(INA) | 5 | 3 | 4 | 12 |
4 | Malaysia(MAS) | 1 | 3 | 4 | 8 |
5 | Thailand(THA) | 1 | 0 | 4 | 5 |
6 | Philippines(PHI) | 0 | 2 | 4 | 6 |
7 | Brunei(BRU) | 0 | 0 | 3 | 3 |
Totals (7 nations) | 23 | 17 | 33 | 73 |
2016 medal table[edit]
Rank | Nation | Gold | Silver | Bronze | Total |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
1 | Vietnam(VIE) | 13 | 6 | 4 | 23 |
2 | Singapore(SIN) | 8 | 9 | 6 | 23 |
3 | Thailand(THA) | 2 | 5 | 6 | 13 |
4 | India(IND) | 0 | 2 | 5 | 7 |
5 | Indonesia(INA) | 0 | 1 | 1 | 2 |
6 | South Korea(KOR) | 0 | 0 | 4 | 4 |
Totals (6 nations) | 23 | 23 | 26 | 72 |
World Sports School Pencak Silat Championship[edit]
The 1st World Sports School Pencak Silat Championship 2016 Singapore
2016 medal table[edit]
Rank | Nation | Gold | Silver | Bronze | Total |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
1 | Singapore(SIN) | 10 | 0 | 0 | 10 |
2 | Azerbaijan(AZE) | 0 | 5 | 0 | 5 |
3 | India(IND) | 0 | 4 | 1 | 5 |
4 | Uzbekistan(UZB) | 0 | 2 | 2 | 4 |
Totals (4 nations) | 10 | 11 | 3 | 24 |
World 5x5 Silat Championship[edit]
The 1st World 5x5 Silat Championship 2017Venue: KL, 11-12 Feb 2017Host: PESAKA Malaysia
The 1st Kids & Junior 5x5 Silat Challenge 2017Venue: KL, 11-12 Mar 2017Host: PESAKA Malaysia
South East Asian Pencak Silat Championship[edit]
5th was held in 2015.
Other[edit]
The 5th ASIAN Beach GamesVenue: Da Nang, 24 Sep - 4 Oct 2016Host: VPSF Vietnam
The 6th TAFISA International Festival Pencak SilatVenue: Jakarta, 7–8 October 2016Host: IPSI Indonesia
See also[edit]
References[edit]
- ^ abcDonn F. Draeger (1992). Weapons and fighting arts of Indonesia. Rutland, Vt. : Charles E. Tuttle Co. ISBN978-0-8048-1716-5.
- ^ ab'Pencak Silat: Techniques and History of the Indonesian Martial Arts'. Black Belt Magazine. Archived from the original on 14 September 2017. Retrieved 6 July 2015.
- ^'Pencak Silat | Asian Games 2018 Jakarta Palembang'. Asian Games 2018 Jakarta Palembang. Archived from the original on September 2, 2018. Retrieved 2018-09-02.
- ^ abGreen, Thomas A. (2010). Martial Arts of the World: An Encyclopedia of History and Innovation. ABC-CLIO. ISBN9781598842432.
- ^Alexander, Howard; Chambers, Quintin; Draeger, Donn F. (1979). Pentjak Silat: The Indonesian Fighting Art. Tokyo, Japan : Kodansha International Ltd.
- ^Sheikh Shamsuddin (2005). The Malay Art Of Self-defense: Silat Seni Gayong. North Atlantic Books. ISBN1-55643-562-2.
- ^ abcHet nieuws van den dag voor Nederlandsch-Indië 20-02-19
- ^, UITGEGEVEN DOOE HET BATAVIAASCH GENOOTSCHAP VAN KUNSTEN EN WETENSCHAPPEN. ONDEB BEDAGTIE VAN J. E. ALBBECHT. EN D. GEBTH VAN WIJK. Deel XXVI. BATAVIA, W. BEIUNINO & Co. 1881.
- ^Sumatra-courant : nieuws- en advertentieblad 23-11-1872
- ^Bataviaasch nieuwsblad 24-04-1928
- ^'Silek Harimau Minangkabau: the True Martial Art of West Sumatra'. Wonderful Indonesia. Archived from the original on 8 July 2015. Retrieved 8 July 2015.
- ^Matanasi, Petrik (2011-07-01). Para Jagoan: Dari Ken Arok sampai Kusni Kasdut (in Indonesian). Trompet Book. ISBN9786029913118.
- ^Ika Krismantari (5 December 2012). 'Passing on a legacy'. The Jakarta Post. Jakarta. Archived from the original on March 5, 2016. Retrieved 4 August 2015.
- ^Thesis: Seni Silat Melayu by Abd Rahman Ismail (USM 2005 matter 188)
- ^Djamal, Mid. Filsafat dan Silsilah Aliran-Aliran Silat Minangkabau. Penerbit CV. Tropic - Bukittinggi.1986
- ^'Sejarah Merpati Putih' (in Indonesian). PPS Betako Merpati Putih, Pewaris - Pengurus Pusat. Retrieved 8 July 2015.
- ^'KOARMATIM Siap Tarung' (in Indonesian). Tentara Nasional Indonesia. Archived from the original on June 8, 2017. Retrieved 8 July 2015.
- ^'Merpati Putih' (in Indonesian). PPS Betako Merpati Putih, Pewaris - Pengurus Pusat. Retrieved 8 July 2015.
- ^Uwe Patzold (2011). Self-Defense and Music in Muslim Context in West Java in Divine Inspirations: Music and Islam in Indonesia. Oxford, UK : Oxford University Press. ISBN978-0-19-538541-0.
- ^'Cimande'. Cimande France. Retrieved 8 July 2015.
- ^Nathalie Abigail Budiman (1 August 2015). 'Betawi pencak silat adapts to modern times'. The Jakarta Post. Jakarta. Retrieved 10 August 2015.
- ^'Tentang Bakti Negara' (in Indonesian). Bakti Negara. Retrieved 10 August 2015.
- ^'Pencak Silat Body Basics'. Google.com. Retrieved 7 July 2015.
- ^ ab'Pencak Silat Punch and Blocking Techniques'. Google.com. Retrieved 7 July 2015.
- ^'International Pencak Silat Competition Regulations'. PERSILAT. 2004. Archived from the original on November 21, 2015. Retrieved 2010-12-21.
Further reading[edit]
- Quintin Chambers and Donn F. Draeger (1979). Javanese Silat: The Fighting Art of Perisai Diri. ISBN0-87011-353-4.
- Sean Stark (2007). Pencak Silat Pertempuran: Vol. 1. Stark Publishing. ISBN978-0-615-13968-5.
- Sean Stark (2007). Pencak Silat Pertempuran: Vol. 2. Stark Publishing. ISBN978-0-615-13784-1.
- O'ong Maryono (2002). Pencak Silat in the Indonesian Archipelago. ISBN9799341604.
- Suwanda, Herman (2006). Pencak Silat Through my eyes. Los Angeles: Empire Books. p. 97. ISBN9781933901039.
- Mason, P.H. (2012) 'A Barometer of Modernity: Village performances in the highlands of West Sumatra,' ACCESS: Critical Perspectives on Communication, Cultural & Policy Studies, 31(2), 79-90.
External links[edit]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Pencak silat. |
- Internatioanl Pencak Silat Federation/ Pentjak Silat USA SouthEast Asian Global Martial Arts
- A collection of essays on Pencak Silat by O'ong Maryono.
- A collection of videos and authoritative articles on Combat Pencak Silat by Ustaz Hussein.
- Pencak Silat Classes in the United States Silat Classes in the United States
- Culture Silat (French).
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